HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
Case Studies 1
Typhoon Haiyan
Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in November 2013 and it’s effects are still being felt by the country today. According to the Saffir-Simpson Scale, Typhoon Haiyan was a category 5 tropical cyclone when it made landfall, meaning that it had wind speeds of over 252 km/h.
Though the Philippines was well prepared for the storm (they are in the latitudinal range for typhoons and experience around 20 storms per season, which goes from June to November) and, since tropical cyclones always move westward, were able to easily predict the storm’s path, Typhoon Haiyan still killed over 6 thousand people, and one thousand are still missing.
Though the Philippines was well prepared for the storm (they are in the latitudinal range for typhoons and experience around 20 storms per season, which goes from June to November) and, since tropical cyclones always move westward, were able to easily predict the storm’s path, Typhoon Haiyan still killed over 6 thousand people, and one thousand are still missing.
Typhoon Haiyan:
The high population density of the Philippines (over 300 people per square kilometer) is one of the reasons why Typhoon Haiyan killed so many people even though the center of the storm didn’t pass over the more heavily populated areas. |
Human induced Hazard In South Asia - Bhopal Disaster
● The Bhopal Disaster was a human induced accident of a gas leak that happened in December 2-3, 1984.
● Over 15,000 people were killed overtime as a cause of the accident. ● Over 300,000 were injured ● The high density had a huge impact, the population density was 257 people per square kilometer. Billions of dollars was put into repairing for the damages and restoring. The Indian Government and the company, which was american was in a legal battle over the accident and had the main economical input when it came to repatriation. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-18260915 |
Hurricane Katrina
How are Hurricanes formed?
Hurricanes start when a column of rising air is created in a low pressure region. As the warm moist air rises from the ocean, trade winds push the disturbance into a spin. This happens over water above 26°C between the 5° and 30° latitudes. It is called a hurricane when winds are above 120 km/h. Hurricanes always move west.
Description of the disaster:
In late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina hit the United States’ states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. A million people were displaced. In flooded towns, buildings were damaged as boats from the sea rammed buildings. In New Orleans, which has large portions of low-lying land, the levees which kept the water out broke due to poor maintenance, flooding the city.
The area affected has moderate population density and high economic development.
Hurricanes are hard to predict. People were warned, but the poor could not afford to escape. Public perception of risk is low because it the risk has been aggravated by increasing sea water temperatures.
Key statistics:
• 1836 people died, mostly from drowning.
• $108 billion worth of capital losses, not including damages to oil, grain, and forest industries.
• Maximum wind speed: 280 km/h.
• The USA accepted aid from 78 countries, including $1 million from Bangladesh.
Failure:
Because of the abnormality of the event, the relief forces were in trucks which could not get to flooded areas.
Due to the large proportion of New Orleans consisting of marginalised communities including African Americans, there was not enough tax money to upgrade the levees. The map shows the distribution of African American people in New Orleans.
Hurricanes start when a column of rising air is created in a low pressure region. As the warm moist air rises from the ocean, trade winds push the disturbance into a spin. This happens over water above 26°C between the 5° and 30° latitudes. It is called a hurricane when winds are above 120 km/h. Hurricanes always move west.
Description of the disaster:
In late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina hit the United States’ states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. A million people were displaced. In flooded towns, buildings were damaged as boats from the sea rammed buildings. In New Orleans, which has large portions of low-lying land, the levees which kept the water out broke due to poor maintenance, flooding the city.
The area affected has moderate population density and high economic development.
Hurricanes are hard to predict. People were warned, but the poor could not afford to escape. Public perception of risk is low because it the risk has been aggravated by increasing sea water temperatures.
Key statistics:
• 1836 people died, mostly from drowning.
• $108 billion worth of capital losses, not including damages to oil, grain, and forest industries.
• Maximum wind speed: 280 km/h.
• The USA accepted aid from 78 countries, including $1 million from Bangladesh.
Failure:
Because of the abnormality of the event, the relief forces were in trucks which could not get to flooded areas.
Due to the large proportion of New Orleans consisting of marginalised communities including African Americans, there was not enough tax money to upgrade the levees. The map shows the distribution of African American people in New Orleans.
California Drought
What is a Drought?
A drought is an extended period where an area experiences low rainfall, resulting in a shortage of water. Droughts usually happen in high-pressure environments around the 30th parallel, in dry and arid environments. The main causes of a drought include reduced precipitation, mismanagement of water resources, and cold-water currents. There are also occasions where there is an air shadow effect, where clouds are trapped by mountains, resulting in a shortage of rainfall on one side of the mountain.
A detailed account of how droughts occur, is when the quantity of water vapor in the air is low, and when stable air masses are present for an extended period of time. A stable air mass refers to a parcel of air that cannot rise, thus clouds and rain are unlikely to form. An unstable air mass is the opposite, whereby a parcel of air can rise, thus clouds and rain are likely to form.
The California Drought
The current drought in California is the worst they have experienced since 1895 and the third driest since records began. The shortage of water and lack of precipitation in California has had an immediate effect on the farm valley. A lot of California’s water comes rain and snow from the north and the eastern mountains, that water then gets stored in the snow packs and it travels down the central Sacramento rivers Delta into then arrives at the main aqueducts. Finally delivering water for the surrounding urban areas.
Impact
During a drought, water that is essential for the citizens arrives to them first for domestic use, and the water that is left over is given to agricultural farmers. Thus agricultural farmers experience it first. In the long run it will have a severe economic impact, as unemployment will increase when farmers begin loosing their jobs due to a shortage of water. Large-scale agriculture (agro-industrialization) is essential for economic development in California and is under pressure due to the shortage of water
Key Statistics:
· 17 000 job workers are going to be lost
· 3% of California’s GDP comes from agriculture
Success:
California is a highly developed and an urbanized state, with 98% of the total population living in urban areas, and the remaining 2% situated in rural areas. This coupled with a highly educated population results in a very effective response and adjustments during droughts.
In order to cope with the drought in California, people living in California are not allowed to fill their pools, water their gardens, or wash their cars with the hose.
A drought is an extended period where an area experiences low rainfall, resulting in a shortage of water. Droughts usually happen in high-pressure environments around the 30th parallel, in dry and arid environments. The main causes of a drought include reduced precipitation, mismanagement of water resources, and cold-water currents. There are also occasions where there is an air shadow effect, where clouds are trapped by mountains, resulting in a shortage of rainfall on one side of the mountain.
A detailed account of how droughts occur, is when the quantity of water vapor in the air is low, and when stable air masses are present for an extended period of time. A stable air mass refers to a parcel of air that cannot rise, thus clouds and rain are unlikely to form. An unstable air mass is the opposite, whereby a parcel of air can rise, thus clouds and rain are likely to form.
The California Drought
The current drought in California is the worst they have experienced since 1895 and the third driest since records began. The shortage of water and lack of precipitation in California has had an immediate effect on the farm valley. A lot of California’s water comes rain and snow from the north and the eastern mountains, that water then gets stored in the snow packs and it travels down the central Sacramento rivers Delta into then arrives at the main aqueducts. Finally delivering water for the surrounding urban areas.
Impact
During a drought, water that is essential for the citizens arrives to them first for domestic use, and the water that is left over is given to agricultural farmers. Thus agricultural farmers experience it first. In the long run it will have a severe economic impact, as unemployment will increase when farmers begin loosing their jobs due to a shortage of water. Large-scale agriculture (agro-industrialization) is essential for economic development in California and is under pressure due to the shortage of water
Key Statistics:
· 17 000 job workers are going to be lost
· 3% of California’s GDP comes from agriculture
Success:
California is a highly developed and an urbanized state, with 98% of the total population living in urban areas, and the remaining 2% situated in rural areas. This coupled with a highly educated population results in a very effective response and adjustments during droughts.
In order to cope with the drought in California, people living in California are not allowed to fill their pools, water their gardens, or wash their cars with the hose.
Honshu earthquake and Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, 2011
Vulnerability to the Honshu earthquake
Disadvantage: - Advantage: +
|
Characteristics of the Fukushima disaster
- The Fukushima power plant’s power supply was disabled
- 3 Fukushima Daiichi reactors cooled, melted and caused a nuclear accident and radioactive releases
- No deaths caused by the nuclear accident
- 19,000 deaths caused by the tsunami itself
Vulnerability to the Fukushima disaster
- Basic task was to prevent release of radioactive materials
- No deaths nor incidents of radiation sickness
- Over 100,000 people had to be evacuated from Fukushima
Risk Assessment
Hazard Identification
Vulnerability Analysis
Capacity Analysis
Analysis & Evaluation
Things to consider when creating a Risk Assessment for a Nuclear Plant
Level 1
Estimates consequences in terms of injury to public and the local environment.
Economic cost is not regarded, as this is often irrelevant. The cost of a clean-up bankrupts most companies and the state has to step in. Tepco is now partly nationalised. In the USA, there are laws that regulate the amount that a company can be forced to pay.
There was a considerable risk for Fukushima but the risk was seen as manageable especially since Japan relies heavily on nuclear power.
Casualties
Short-term Response Strategies
Long-term Response Strategies
Earthquakes: Sudden violent shaking of the ground, Result of movements within the earth’s crust or tectonic plates, Very destructive, Aftershocks = tsunamis, Japan is in an area of high seismic activity because it is between 3 tectonic plate boundaries, In the Pacific Ring of Fire, 50 earthquakes/year in Japan
Tsunami, Extremely long and high wave from the sea, Usually caused by earthquake, Can be up to 39 m
Fukushima: Not natural, After effect caused huge amounts of radiation in atmosphere, Very dangerous for everyone in the area
Hazard Identification
- Nature: Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Volcanoes, etc.
- Location: Where would this happen?Intensity: How strong would the disaster be? Richter scale, look at geographical factors such tectonic plates.
- Probability: The frequency of this happening in the past (trends)
Vulnerability Analysis
- Proximity: How close is a populated area? How would this affect that area?
- Development/industrialisation: how high is the HDI? How well is the population educated? How aware is the population of natural disasters?
Capacity Analysis
- Resources: What resources are available to reduce the risk or the effects? Mainly depends on geographical location and financial capabilities resources of a country/area
Analysis & Evaluation
- There is always some risks
- Which resources are used for which countermeasures and setting priorities often based on the impact a disaster can have, economic or social
- Japan is seen as a high risk area for earthquakes due to location, ergo the detailed response strategies
Things to consider when creating a Risk Assessment for a Nuclear Plant
- How prone is the area to natural disasters?
- How much radioactive material would be released?
- What kind of area would be affected? Groundwater/ocean The surrounding areas Proximity of settlements
Level 1
- Frequency of accidents that cause damage to the reactor core.
- Core Damage Frequency (CDF)
- Probability that Level 1 accidents release radioactive particles.
- What are the consequences for: Settlements Local Environment Energy Production
Estimates consequences in terms of injury to public and the local environment.
Economic cost is not regarded, as this is often irrelevant. The cost of a clean-up bankrupts most companies and the state has to step in. Tepco is now partly nationalised. In the USA, there are laws that regulate the amount that a company can be forced to pay.
There was a considerable risk for Fukushima but the risk was seen as manageable especially since Japan relies heavily on nuclear power.
Casualties
- Dead - 18,853
- Injured - 6,023
- Missing - 3,282
- 25 million tonnes of debris
- Buildings - €78 billion
- Infrastructure - €16.5 billion
- Utilities - €9.7 billion
- Other - €22.5 billion
- Total - €129 billion
- 330,000 lived in temporary housing
Short-term Response Strategies
- 16 countries and 28 international organizations offered assistance to Japan by donated large sums of money and resources
- Areas surrounding Fukushima power plant was evacuated and an exclusion zone was set up
- World Renew (NGO) raised $1,161,888 by December 2012, and continued to work with for two years to help rebuild affected areas
- Japanese Red Cross mobilised 230 emergency service teams to provide medical and emotional support to victims
- 2 weeks after the Fukushima disaster, the 3 reactors were stable with water addition and by July they were being cooled with recycled water from the new treatment plant. Official 'cold shutdown condition' was announced in mid-December
Long-term Response Strategies
- Hi-tech Earthquake Early Warning system sends alarms across the country 1 min.before it hits from 1,000 seismometers distributed across Japan
- Sea walls and floodgates to prevent tsunamis
- Donations to affected areas by the disasters totaled ¥520 billion, and 930,000 volunteers have assisted in disaster recovery efforts
- Many countries, such as Germany and the USA, re-evaluated their own use of nuclear energy
Earthquakes: Sudden violent shaking of the ground, Result of movements within the earth’s crust or tectonic plates, Very destructive, Aftershocks = tsunamis, Japan is in an area of high seismic activity because it is between 3 tectonic plate boundaries, In the Pacific Ring of Fire, 50 earthquakes/year in Japan
Tsunami, Extremely long and high wave from the sea, Usually caused by earthquake, Can be up to 39 m
Fukushima: Not natural, After effect caused huge amounts of radiation in atmosphere, Very dangerous for everyone in the area
Drought in the Horn of Africa
Description: What is “The Horn of Africa”?:
What happened in the Horn of Africa?:
What were the impacts and consequences?
Vulnerability:
Due to high population density and low HDI makes The Horn of Africa vulnerable to hazards and disasters. The lack of resources does not allow for proper prevention methods to be set in place.
Perception:
Adjustments: What they should do
Key Figures/Statistics:
- Mainly consists of 5 African countries - Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya and Uganda.
- The horn of Africa consists of countries that are LEDC’s and most of their population live under the poverty line.
- Out of 170 countries, Somalia is among the five least developed as measured by the 2012 Human Development Index. (Somalia HDI: 0.364)
- The Horn of Africa is roughly inhibited by 100 million people, with Somalia having a population density of 16.0.
What happened in the Horn of Africa?:
- In July 2011 through to August 2012 there was a drought in the Horn of Africa that was described as "The worst in 60 years".
- A drought can be defined as - an extended period of unusually dry weather when there is not enough rain. The lack of precipitation can cause a variety of problems for local communities, including damage to crops and a shortage of drinking water. These effects can lead to devastating economic and social disasters, such as famine, forced migration away from drought-stricken areas, and conflict over remaining resources.
- Droughts and famines have been frequent in the last 40 years
- An unusually strong La Niña has interrupted rainfall for 2 consecutive seasons. In 2011, the rains failed in Kenya and Ethiopia just like they had for Somalia for the previous 2 years. (La Niña is an ocean-atmosphere phenomenon where sea surface temperatures drop by 3-5 degrees (C). This causes Eastern Equatorial Africa to get drier)
- This lead to large scale crop failure and loss of livestock
What were the impacts and consequences?
- 100,000 deaths - More than half under the age of 5
- Needed $2.5 billion worth of aid
- 10.7 million in need of humanitarian assistance
- 25% of Somalia’s population is misplaced
- According to the US Census Bureau fertility has decreased from 7.6 in 1980 to its current rate of 4.2, the country’s population continues to increase at a rate of 2.6% per year.
- The crisis has affected:
- 10 million in Kenya
- 6 million people in Ethiopia
- 3 million in Somalia
- 2 million in Uganda
Vulnerability:
Due to high population density and low HDI makes The Horn of Africa vulnerable to hazards and disasters. The lack of resources does not allow for proper prevention methods to be set in place.
- HDI: Somalia: 0.364 Ethiopia: 0.435 Djibouti: 0.467 Kenya: 0.535 Uganda: 0.484
- Government Corruption
- Somalia: 2nd most corrupt country in the world (North Korea is 1st)
- Corruption, or anarchy means that governments are unable to respond adequately to the stress imposed by the drought
- Kenya: Food distribution started in February - Drought started in July, State sponsored safety-net programs
- Reasons for living in hazardous areas: Many live in informal settlements and don’t have the money to leave the hazardous area. Low GDP per capita.
Perception:
- Fear has increased as the drought is involuntary.
- Droughts cause widespread death so people are more fearful.
- A recent Save the Children assessment in Niger showed families in the worst-hit areas were already struggling with a third less food, money and fuel than is necessary to survive.
- Droughts and famines have been frequent in the last 40 years, therefore the people in the Horn Of Africa should have a lot of experience with it. This should have decreased risk, however because of a lack of education and economic means, the people cannot afford to prepare or don’t know how.
- There is a poverty cycle, children spend time getting water instead of going to school. Children don’t get the necessary knowledge needed to reduce risk.
- Countries were warned:
- Kenya - High risk perception, prepared with food distribution and safety net programs
- Somalia - No response, lack of governmental organization
- "It's shocking that the poorest people are still bearing the brunt of a failure to respond swiftly and decisively."
- International Aid was provided, however not soon enough.
- The threat can be reduced, by preparing for the drought through
- Preserving food and water supplies
- Collecting aid prior to the disaster in order to eliminate possibility of not being able to deliver aid to the damaged area (as sometimes NGO’s take too long to respond.)
- Humanitarian agencies have requested US$2.48 billion to address the crisis, but as of 1 August have secured less than half that amount. The European Union announced it would provide €5.67 million to help millions of people in the Horn of Africa affected by the drought
- Kenya
- Food distribution started in February - Drought started in July
- State sponsored safety-net programs
- WFP is providing food assistance for 7.8 million people
Adjustments: What they should do
- Provide Farmers with Drought-resistant farmers
- Improve rainwater harvesting
- Information on weather forecasting systems.
Key Figures/Statistics:
- 100,000 deaths - More than half under the age of 5
- Needed $2.5 billion worth of aid
- 10.7 million in need of humanitarian assistance
- 25% of Somalia’s population is misplaced
Links for further reading:
What is a drought?: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/os/brochures/climate/DroughtPublic2.pdf East Africa drought (videographic, the economist): https://www.youtube.com/watch? Horn of Africa drought: Aljezeera case study: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/hornofafrica/ East Africa's drought: the avoidable disaster: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/18/east-africa-drought-disaster-report Food insecurity in the horn of Africa: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x8530e/x8530e02.htm |
Haiti 2010 Earthquake
Description: January 12th 2010, an earthquake in Haiti measured 7.0 magnitude on the Richter scale
|
Vulnerability:
Perceived level of risk: high
Response:
Adjustments: What they should do
Key Figures and Statistics
- Poor country (GDP per capita 1.200 USD)
- Haiti did not invest/educate into their buildings and private housing in order to make them withstand the earthquakes better
- Because of Haiti's extreme poverty (about 72% live on less than $2 a day) people often lacked education about hazards and were often forced to live in vulnerable areas. People certainly didn't have money to stockpile resources (food, water, tents, blankets, etc.) or move to safer areas after the quake.
- Buildings not fit to withstand earthquakes
- Built on slopes
- Improper foundations
- Insufficient steel
- Not enough resources to educate the nation about prevention methods of the hazardous event.
- Haiti is located between two tectonic plates and therefore will always be a hazardous area.
- Haiti did not invest into adjusting their infrastructure, despite there always being a possibility of an earthquake
- Earthquakes can occur at any time as they can not be predicted
- Haiti's population density is highest in Port-au-Price, therefore more potential damage
- Due to the corruption less money was spent on the possible preparation for the earthquake.
- The poor building codes and lack of healthcare is also highlighted in the number of deaths (1 in every 15 people affected by the quake died).
Perceived level of risk: high
- Uncontrollable Hazard
- Direct Impact
- Fear of Impact
- High Fatalities
- Personal Victims - Affected almost all of Haiti
- High Media Attention
Response:
- $13.34 billion dollars of aid received
- More than $4 billion from the U.S. Government
- Received aid: Dominican Aid, UN aid, International Aid
- However, due to the damaged airport and roads it was difficult to deliver aid to the affected areas.
Adjustments: What they should do
- Invest in Earthquake proof buildings
- Warning systems
- Teach procedures in case of emergency
- Countries do not have the funds or knowledge to do so
Key Figures and Statistics
- 230,000--316,000: estimates of the death toll vary.
- 300,000: number of injured
- 1.5 million: people initially displaced
- 85,432: displaced people remain in 123 sites as of September 2014
- 4992 school were damaged or destroyed
- 1000+ Haitian orphans were adopted into the United States and The Netherlands
- 1 in every 15 people affected by the quake died
- Cholera Outbreak: Hospitals overcrowded, 8592 Deaths (as of August 30, 2014), Over 700,000 cases